Part 1 -- Medieval
European history
Before
beginning to analyze technology that developed during the Middle
Ages, it is helpful to understand the time period. Therefore, we will start
this section with a series of web tutorials on the history of the Middle Ages.
This web site
is designed to assist those students who do not have a background in medieval
European history. The "tutorial is presented in a series
of chapters that summarize the economic, political, religious and intellectual
environment of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The main
objective of the tutorial is to furnish a baseline against which the vast
changes of the following centuries may be measured."
This
introduction, although not comprehensive, is designed to assist students
without a background or appreciation of Medieval
history. After reading these tutorials, you should have a
understanding of the economic, political, religious and intellectual
environment of the Middle Ages in Europe.
You should
read the following five web sites before you begin the section on Medieval
Technology.
This web site is
designed to assist those students who do not have a background in medieval
European history. The "tutorial is presented in a series of chapters that
summarize the economic, political, religious and intellectual environment of
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The main objective of the tutorial is
to furnish a baseline against which the vast changes of the following centuries
may be measured." To complete the tutorial on medieval European history,
please click on this link http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/
The next web site
describes the role of the guilds in the economic life of the Middle
Ages. Please click on this link http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/24guilds.html
Last, I hope that you
will consider the significance of the growth of trade in the Medieval Age. By
the 13th century, trade dominated the Western economy and eventually led to the
development of world-wide trade in the Renaissance. This last source
discusses the life of one such trader-merchant, Goderic,
who in time became a saint. Reginald of Durham: Life of St. Goderic
[12th Cent], http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/goderic.html.
Part 2 - Medieval
Technology
In this section,
we will explore various technologies that were developed during the Middle Ages in Europe. Although this information is drawn
from different web sites, a reading of all of these sources should help you
appreciate the amount of technological development that occurred in the Middle Ages. This section focuses on technologies that
appear to be natively "European." Other technologies (such as paper,
gunpowder, the compass, stirrups, among others) were based on older
developments in other regions, particularly China. In the section on Chinese
technology, we will discuss those technologies that were transferred from China
to the West. An overall timeline of Medieval
technology by Paul J. Gans is available at this web
site http://scholar.chem.nyu.edu/tekpages/Timeline.html.
To simplify
your reading, I have divided this study of medieval technology into six
sections: Agricultural Tools, The Harnessing of Time, The Use of Iron on the Middle Ages,
Weaving and the Textile Industry,
and Building
Construction.
Agricultural
Tools
The plow is
considered to be one of the most important (and oldest) technologies developed.
In fact, the history of the plow stretches back to the Neolithic (New Stone)
Age that began about 8000 BC in Mesopotamia. In the Middle
Ages, however, the plow was radically improved and was used with multiple-oxen
teams. This innovation facilitated the clearing of the forests of fertile
northwest Europe (Gies & Gies,
1994). Before this time because of the nature of the soil, it was difficult to
plow these fields. And, obviously, this inability to cultivate these fields
reduced the population of northwest Europe. After the redesign of the plow,
allowing the plow to plow the heavier and wetter soil of northwest Europe,
there was a dramatic increase in agricultural productivity, and subsequently,
the population of these areas. The working day of a farmer was still very
difficult, even with the technological improvements of the Medieval Age. Click
on this link to read an account of an average day's work for a plowman,
shepherd, and fisherman in 1000 AD, The Dialogue Between
Master & Disciple: On Laborers, c. 1000m, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1000workers.html.
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Click on the picture on the right to see an
enlarged view of a Ming era wheelbarrow. The Ming Dynasty ruled China from
1368 to 1644. http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/images/mingwbrw.jpg |
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In addition to
the redesign of the plow, the way the crops were grown changed in Medieval
Europe when farmers changed from a two-field crop rotation to a three-field
crop rotation beginning in the 8th century. According to White (1962),
Charlemagne himself thought of this agricultural innovation. Why, we may ask,
is it so significant? How did the three-field rotation work, as compared with
the older two-field rotation? Under a two-field rotation, half the land was
planted in a year while the other half lay fallow. Then, in the next year, the
two fields were reversed. Under three-field rotation, the land was divided into
three parts. One section was planted in the Fall with
winter wheat or rye. The next Spring, the second field
was planted with other crops such as peas, lentils, or beans and the third
field was left fallow. The three fields were rotated in this manner so that
every three years, a field would rest and be unplanted. Under the two filed
system, if one has a total of 600 fertile acres of land, one would only plant
300 acres. Under the new three-field rotation system, one would plant (and
thereby harvest) 400 acres. But, the additional crops had a more significant
effect than mere productivity. Since the Spring crops
were mostly legumes, they increased the overall nutrition of the people of
Northern Europe.
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Two other technologies played an important
role in the development of medieval agriculture. And, the consequence of
these improvements was a major increase in agricultural productivity (White,
1962). Each of these three technologies will be discussed separately. To read
about each technology and how it affected the agricultural practices of the
Middle Ages, please click on the links below.
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Russian Imperial Moscow. State Armory Museum. © Kathleen Cohen |
The
Harnessing of Time
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Clocks are a fairly recent invention; that
is, the first clocks were created about 5000 to 6000 years ago by the great civilizations in the Middle East and
North Africa. As with many
technologies, the development of the clock was driven by societal needs. In
these centralized civilizations (such as the Sumerian and Egyptian
civilizations), there was a societal need to organize time more efficiently.
The first clocks were shadow clocks or sundials where the time of day could
be determined by following the shadows cast by the sun. Mechanical
clocks were first used in China, more for astronomical and astrological
purposes rather then for telling the time. About
725 AD, a Chinese engineer, Liang Ling-Tsan
invented the mechanical escapement, which is a key device in all mechanical
clocks. One of the most elaborate clock towers was built by Su Sung and his
associates in 1088 A.D. It is also interested to note that the developments
in Chinese clock building were influenced by Muslims. During the period
beginning with the Mongol conquest of China by Kublai Khan, the Chinese
Mongol rulers employed Muslim astronomers. These Muslim astronomers developed
improved astronomical instruments (McClellan & Dorn, 1999). |
Mumford (1986)
identified the clock as the "key" machine of the modern industrial
age. He emphasizes the clock because of
its uniqueness among other machines of its day. It was a new type of
power machine, "in which the source of power and the transmission were of
such a nature as to ensure the even flow of energy throughout the works and to
make possible regular production and a standardized product" (p. 326). He
also notes that the clock served as a model for many other types of mechanical
products.
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However, the most significant difference
between the clock and other machines was in its effect on society. Large mechanical clocks began to appear in
the towers of several large Italian cities beginning in the 14th century.
With the clock, time became divided into regulated units instead of remaining
dependent on events or the day. Before
the clock, people worked, ate, and slept according to the patterns of the sun
and moon. After the clock, the day was
presided over by a monitor from the time of rising to the hour of rest. Through the clock, "time took on the
character of an enclosed space: it could be divided, it could be filled up,
it could even be expanded by the invention of labor-saving instruments"
(Mumford, p. 328). |
As the clock
became more widely used, abstract time became the new medium of existence. It brought with it a mechanical efficiency
through coordination. This efficiency
was seen as a desirable trait in society and its effect on our society is still
evident today.
You can read
about the development of the clock during the Middle Ages at the NIST web site
(http://www.nist.gov/pml/general/time/early.cfm).
The Use of Iron and Mining in the Middle Ages
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One of the most important developments in the
Middle Ages was the experimentation and developments in iron production. As
noted by Bert Hall in his essay, "Iron is one of the most useful metals
ever discovered, but it is also one of the more difficult metals to
understand in history, especially in medieval history. Iron comes in several
forms, and the complications involved in producing each of
them fosters further confusion." In Europe by
900, there were significant changes in the production of iron. The above
ground reduction furnace had been developed; this furnace allowed for the
easier creation of iron. This iron could then be forged by local smiths into
"parts for plows, spades, pitchforks, and shoes for horses beginning to
pull with the aid of the new horse collar" (Gies
& Gies, 1994, pp. 80-81). |
Before you begin
thinking about iron production, read this short history of metals, http://neon.mems.cmu.edu/cramb/Processing/history.html
For a brief
description on iron in the Middle Ages, click on this link to read Gan's essay on iron working, http://scholar.chem.nyu.edu/tekpages/ironworking.html
In addition to
the mining of iron ore to make agricultural and manufacturing products, the
Medieval Age saw an increase in the mining of other metals including silver,
lead, copper, gold, and anthracite. During the early to middle Medieval Age,
the work of mining followed the pattern of manor-based agriculture. A family of
miners would work on a seam of ore and they would get a percent of the ore that
was mined. Those who mined precious ore (silver or gold) were usually paid in
ore; the miners could then sell their ore directly to a goldsmith or
silversmith. As in other craft areas, the mining industry underwent a
transition during the the late Medieval period.
Because of the demand for more ore, particularly precious metals for coins,
there was a transition from a family, craft-based production to a "capital
intensive industry subject to central management in which the miner was an
employee of the Crown or its lessees" (Claughton,
1997). As ore became more difficult to mine from the ground, the mines became
deeper. This led to the use of new technologies in the mining industry. One of
the most important 15th century applications for the waterwheel was to pump out
mine shafts. A classic mining book, De re metallica
(published 1556), showed a variety of pumps, bucket chains, and treadmill
devices. In any case, by the year 1500, iron production for Europe was 60,000
tons (Gies & Gies,
1994). This increase in iron reduced its cost and, at the same time, increased
the number of tools available, particularly in agriculture.
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These three
essays describe mining during the Medieval Age in England.
Agreement on the
Exploitation of a Silver Mine, 1180. This is a primary source from the Medieval
Sourcebook that discusses the profit division in the silver mines in Toulon, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1180slvrmine.html.
Silver mining in
England and Wales, 1066-1500, http://www.exeter.ac.uk/~pfclaugh/mhinf/synopsis.htm
The medieval silver
mines at Bere Ferrers,
Devon, http://www.exeter.ac.uk/~pfclaugh/mhinf/medieval.htm
Weaving and the Textile Industry
By far,
working in agriculture was the most common job in the Middle
Ages. The mechanization, fertilization, and other modern techniques that we
take for granted were almost nonexistent. It took a large number of people to
produce food for a society.
St. Pierre. Eve spinning by Gothic Anonymous, 14 c, Lille.
Museum of Religious Art. Copyright Kathleen Cohen, SJSU,
sci02092.
Of the crafts,
the largest one was in cloth making. And, it is in cloth making that the first
industrialization occurred during the Middle Ages. By
the Middle Ages, the location of textile production
was usually a household where the man was the weaver and the women prepared and
spun yarn for the loom. All cloth was woven by hand on a loom and the most
common materials of this time period were wool, cotton, silk, and linen. Each
of these materials had its own production and most of them required the
contributions of more than one individual. Manufacturing techniques remained
unchanged over a long period of time. To produce wool, the fleece needed to be
washed and then combed to remove tangles. Next, the yarn needed to be spun with
a spindle. Here is a description of this process (taken from Gies & Gies, 1994)
"Holding in her left hand the distaff, a short forked stick around which a mass of the prepared raw fibers was wound, the spinster took some of the fibers between the finger and thumb of her right hand, twisting them together as she drew them gently downward. When the thread thus produced was long enough, she tucked the distaff under her arm or in her belt and tied the thread with a slipknot to the top of the spindle, a toplike rod with a disk-shaped weight attached to the bottom to increase rotation, and gave it a turn. The suspended weight pulled the fibers slowly through the spinster's fingers, while the rotation twisted them together into yarn. The process depended on the practiced skill of spinster in controlling the release of the fibers. Drawing out more fibers from the distaff, she repeated the operation until the spindle reached the floor, when she picked it up and wound the spun thread around it. When the spindle was full, she wound the thread into ball." (p. 51)
Because of the
time involved, it took many hand spinners to supply a single weaver. And,
initially, weaving was difficult to do because the first looms used were
vertical. By the 12th century, horizontal looms were used that allowed the
weaver to sit while he worked (Gies & Gies, 1994). These looms most likely were adaptations of
earlier silk looms developed by the Chinese and transferred through traders.
Click on this link to learn more about the horizontal loom, http://scholar.chem.nyu.edu/tekpages/loom.html.
During the
Medieval Age, wool was the dominant textile with linen as the next important
manufactured textile produced. Linen is a particular difficult finished product
to manufacture. Linen is derived from flax, a plant that has been cultivated
for material since 3000 BC. A short history and a description of the modern
manufacture of linen can be found at http://www.thelinenhouse.com/EN/AboutLinen_FromFlaxToLinen.htm. This
site notes how difficult the manufacture of linen is today; imagine how much
more labor- and time-intensive this process was during the non-mechanized
Medieval Age.
Cotton
manufacture was also the result of technology transfer, this time from the
Muslims. After the Muslim conquest of Spain and Sicily, the new Muslim
government developed widespread cotton manufacturing. In the 12th century, when
Sicily was reconquered by the Normans, the cotton
weaving knowledge was spread to northern Italy (Gies
& Gies, 1984) and afterwards to the rest of
Europe. Silk, another important textile used during the Medieval Age, was
not manufactured in any significant quantity in Europe until much later (16th
century). A small amount was produced in Italy (click on this link to read a
primary source that describes how the technology of making silk was transferred
to Italy, Procopius: The Roman Silk Industry, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/550byzsilk.html).
But, until the late Medieval period, most silk was
imported from either China or the Moslems. For more information on the transfer
of silk manufacturing, click on this link http://scholar.chem.nyu.edu/tekpages/silk.html.
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During the early to mid Medieval Age, the
textile industry was dominated by guilds, as were the other crafts. A guild
was a workers' association. The main role of a guild was the regulation of
its trade or craft. "No one not a member could sell at retail in the
town. A foreign merchant had to sell to a guildsman, who would then re-sell
to the citizens. In some cases foreigners were allowed to sell directly, but
they had to pay a very heavy tax for the privilege. Foreign merchants were
usually limited to one year's stay in the town or less - they could not set
up shop permanently" (Knox, 1999) Often, the
goods (whether cloth or metal goods) would be sold through markets or fairs.
This link will take you to a primary source catalogued by the Medieval
Sourcebook. Click on the link to read this description of markets and fairs
(from the 13th century). Humbert de Romans: On
Markets & Fairs, c. 1270, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1270romans.html. |
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The first
guilds were merchant guilds in the late 11th and 12th centuries. These guilds
were composed of all artisans, merchants, and traders within the town. As
crafts began to develop and grow, the merchant guilds usually split up into
craft guilds. According to Knox (1999), in Augsburg, "there were 17 guilds
in 1350, 38 guilds by 1450, and over 60 guilds by 1550." In the textile
industry, there usually were different guilds for the different steps in the
textile manufacturing process: spinners, weavers, fullers, dyers, and wool
merchants.
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By the 13th
century, the textile industry underwent an organizational change. Cloth
making began to be organized as a "putting out" system. These
changes were first seen in the Flemish wool industry when wool production was
moved from the villages into the towns of the Scheldt valley. The system is
called a "putting out" system because the cloth merchant functioned
as the manager of the entire process. Previously, the cloth merchant
functioned as a middleman between weavers and the market. Now, the cloth
merchant also acted as a middleman between the weavers and the wool suppliers
(the English sheep farmers). The cloth merchant acted as the
"factory" foreman and, more to the point, he was able to
economically dominate the cloth industry. |
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Another key
innovation in the 13th century was the introduction into Europe of the spinning
wheel. "The Great or Jersey wheel, introduced around 1350, was the
first improvement made in the process of cotton spinning. Thread
could be spun faster on the wheel than with the traditional distaff"
(Hills, 1973, p. 15). The final Medieval
technical improvement to the spinning wheel was the addition of a foot treadle
that powered the wheel.
By 1400, more
changes had begun for the textile industry. These changes were aided by the
dramatic social changes that occurred in the previous one hundred years.
Because of the peace and general prosperity during the 13th century, Europe was
overpopulated during the first part of the 14th century. And, with a rash of
poor weather in the early 13th century, poorer harvest led to mass starvation
in some parts of Europe. Added to this was an increase in warfare (for example,
the Hundred
Years' War), and death by warfare. To compound the problem further, the Black
Death (the plague) struck Europe in 1347 through 1349. Historians estimate
that between one-fourth to one-half of Europe's population
died in the 14th century.
These societal
events affected the economic life. For example, when Henry III of England was
fighting against Louis IX of France in Aquitaine, "trade between England
and France was greatly hampered. The Cistercians refused contributions to the
royal revenue, and therefore Henry prohibited their profitable woolen trade
with the continent. The Florentine and Flemish merchants were at this time
those most interested in buying wool from England." To read this primary
account about the effect of war on the woolen trade, click on this link,
Accounts of State Interference With Trade, 1242-1244, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1242tradeinterfer.html.
How did this
decrease in population help the textile industry, one may ask? First, because
of the decrease in population, land became cheaper. And cheaper land caused a
shift to more sheep farming, especially in England. (Remember that the English
dominated the market for wool during the Medieval Age.) This led to the
development of a new form of textile production in England where "the
sheep-owning landowner established production on his own manor, outside the
jurisdiction of both city and guild regulations" (Gies
& Gies, 1994, p. 269). In Western Europe, the
"putting out" system was ending and was being replaced by a
factory-like production of textiles. At first, the workers usually worked out
of their own houses while being visited by inspectors. Later, the workers were
moved to a centralized "factory" or workshop where the length of the
day and the amount of work was regulated. In any case, by the end of the
Medieval Age, the stage was set fir the total
industrialization of the textile industry during the Industrial Revolution.
Building
Construction
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Before beginning our discussion of the
techniques used in Medieval construction, it is best to understand the social
structure of the times. Although the Middle Ages stretch from approximately
500 to 1500 AD, there were changes in the distribution of people in Europe. A
particularly important social phenomena during this
time period was the growth of towns, and later cities. A short description of
daily life in medieval towns can be read at the following web site, http://www.britainexpress.com/History/Townlife.htm.
The growth
of towns meant the development of a new type of worker and here the craftsmen
become very important. After 1000, there was a revival of commerce in Western
Europe and the towns were well positioned as the location for these traders.
Also, since the spread of the heavy plow (see section on Agricultural Tools above), agricultural
productivity increased. This meant that there were excess agricultural
workers who now could move to a town and work in either trade or
manufacturing. Since most
of the construction during this time was done with wood, carpentry was a
lucrative trade. The carpenters generally formed their own guilds. For a
guild to be recognized, it usually had to have a chapter from a town, church,
or noble. This link, Commune of Richirzegcheide:Grant of a Gild to the Carpenters, is a
translation of one such grant from 1180. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1180carpentersguild.html
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There
are several distinct categories of buildings during this time. In this
section, we will discuss the range of construction from peasant housing to
cathedral building. In all areas of building, there were dramatic changes
throughout the Middle Ages. A few examples of these
changes are discussed under the categories below.
Peasant Houses, http://scholar.chem.nyu.edu/tekpages/peasanthouses.html
The Construction and
History of Medieval Timber-Framed Houses in England and Wales, http://wonderful.org.uk/
Wichamstow, a Saxon Village, http://www.regia.org/estate.htm
Windmills, http://scholar.chem.nyu.edu/tekpages/windmills.html
The Stave Church, http://home.ringnett.no/bjornstad/stavechurch/frameset.html
Gothic Cathedrals, http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/26cathedral.html
Conclusion
As we can see
from the stories of the various technologies, the development and diffusion of
a technology depends not only on its invention but also on the social and
cultural climate in which it was invented. For example, as discussed above, the
rapid population declines of the 13th century, for example, led to an increase
in sheep farms, which led to an increase in textile production. Not all
technological change is as readily traced. James Burke, in his well-known book
on technology and society, focused on the connections. As he says in his
introduction, "Change almost always comes as a surprise because things
don't happen in straight lines. Connections are made by accident. Second
guessing the result of an occurrence is difficult, because when people or ideas
come together in new ways, the rules of arithmetic are changed so that one plus
one suddenly makes three. This is the fundamental mechanism
of innovation, and when it happens the result is always more than the sum of
the parts" (Burke, 1978, p. vii).
The impact of
a technology on society is always unexpected because technologies are rarely
"the end of the story." They lead to new technologies--or new
uses--or new social modes. It is this interplay of technology and society
throughout the Medieval Age that it so interesting. By now, you should see why
the older term "Dark Ages" is inappropriate. All the foundations for
our modern society were laid in the Medieval Age including universities, the Industrial
Revolution, and the Capitalist system.
But,
technology did not develop solely in Europe. Many technologies, instead, were
the result of inventions that were transferred from the East (China, India, and
the Muslim world). In the next two sections, we will discuss the contributions
of China and the Muslim world to the growth of technology in the West.
Islam
Spain and the History of Technology
Chinese
Contributions to Technology
References
Burke, J.
(1978). Connections. Boston: Little, Brown
& Company.
Claughton, P. (1997). Silver mining in England and
Wales, 1066-1500. http://www.exeter.ac.uk/~pfclaugh/mhinf/synopsis.htm
Gies, F., & Gies, J. (1994). Cathedral, forge,
and waterwheel. New York: HarperCollins.
Hills,
R. L. (1973). Richard Arkwright and Cotton Spinning.
Pioneers of Science and Discovery. London: Priory Press Ltd.
Knox, E. L.
(1999). Medieval Society. http://members.aol.com/mcnelis/medsci_index.html
Langdon, J.
(1986). Horses, Oxen, and Technical Innovation.
Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-26772 2
McClellan,
J. E., & Dorn, H. (1999). Science and technology in World History.
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Mumford, L.
(1986). The Lewis Mumford reader. New York: Pantheon Books.
Ross,
F. (1982). Oracle Bones, Stars and Wheelbarrows :
Ancient Chinese Science and Technology. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
White, L.,
Jr., (1962). Medieval technology and social change.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Other Web Resources
The Medieval
Sourcebook, located at the Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies,
includes thousands of sources including full text articles, law texts, saint's
lives, maps and other sources related to the Medieval Age. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook.html
Feudal Life,
What was it really like to live in the Middle Ages, an exhibit posted by the
Corporation for Public Broadcasting, http://www.learner.org/exhibits/middleages/feudal.html
A
series of lectures on Medieval Europe by Lynn White, University of Kansas. The following lectures
are of particular relevance to this tutorial.
Five Contributions of
the Middle Ages, http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/medieval_achievements.html
The Rise of Commerce
and Towns, http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/towns.html
The Rise of Feudalism,
http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/feudalism.html
THE PEASANTS, Advances
in Agricultural Technology, http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/peasants.html
THE MEDIEVAL PAUPERS, http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/paupers.html
The Rise of
Capitalism, http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/capitalism.html
A
series of lectures by Professor Gerhard Rempel,
Western New England College for his class, Western Civilization I.
Charlemagne, http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/18charlemagne.html
Feudalism, http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/19feudalism.html
THE MEDIEVAL MANOR, http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/22manor.html
Medieval Universities, http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/25meduni.html
GOTHIC CATHEDRALS, http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/26cathedral.html
The Black Death
(Plague), http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/27blackdeath.html